study_id,year,journal,doi,agency,crew,n_flyers,n_controls,control_type,mission_class,days_mean,days_min,days_max,measure_group,finding,direction,effect,effect_unit,followup_months,back_to_normal,where_in_paper,source_url
roberts-2017,2017,N Engl J Med 377(18):1746-1753,10.1056/NEJMoa1705129,NASA,astronauts,34,,none; 16 short-duration (shuttle) flyers compared with 18 long-duration (ISS) flyers,mixed,164.8,,,Brain position and shape,Central sulcus narrowed in 17 of 18 astronauts after long ISS stays vs 3 of 16 after short shuttle flights; cine MRI showed an upward brain shift after all 12 long-duration cases and none of 6 short-duration cases,shift,17 of 18,astronauts with a narrower central sulcus after long-duration flight (3 of 16 after short flights),,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1705129
roberts-2017,2017,N Engl J Med 377(18):1746-1753,10.1056/NEJMoa1705129,NASA,astronauts,34,,none; 16 short-duration (shuttle) flyers compared with 18 long-duration (ISS) flyers,mixed,164.8,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,CSF spaces at the top of the brain (vertex) narrowed after all 12 long-duration cine-clip cases and 1 of 6 short-duration cases,decrease,12 of 12,long-duration astronauts with narrower vertex CSF spaces (1 of 6 after short flights),,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1705129
roberts-2017,2017,N Engl J Med 377(18):1746-1753,10.1056/NEJMoa1705129,NASA,astronauts,34,,none; 16 short-duration (shuttle) flyers compared with 18 long-duration (ISS) flyers,mixed,164.8,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),3 astronauts in the long-duration group had optic-disc edema; all 3 also had a narrowed central sulcus,increase,3 of 18,long-duration astronauts with optic-disc edema,,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1705129
kramer-2020,2020,Radiology 295(3):640-648,10.1148/radiol.2020191413,NASA,astronauts,11,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,long-duration (days not in abstract),,,,Brain position and shape,Pituitary dome flattened in 6 of 11 astronauts; average midline pituitary height fell from 5.9 to 5.3 mm,decrease,-0.6,"mm (average midline pituitary height, preflight to postflight day 1)",,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020191413
warthen-2025,2025,NPJ Microgravity 11:14,10.1038/s41526-025-00468-x,NASA,astronauts,13 in Abstract; 10 in Results,10 in Abstract; 7 in Results,healthy controls scanned on the same MRI,about 6 months,179 in Abstract; 159 in Results,,,Brain position and shape,Brain tissue moved up inside the skull after about 6 months in space,shift,0.74,mm upward shift of white-matter centre of mass (astronauts) vs -0.12 mm in controls,,not tested,"Results, Tissue and Fluid 3D Shifts; Table 1",https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-025-00468-x
wang-2026,2026,Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 123(3):e2505682122,10.1073/pnas.2505682122,NASA,astronauts,26,24,"participants in a 60-day head-down-tilt bed-rest study (AGBRESA); a ground analogue, not matched controls","mixed (about 2 weeks, about 6 months, about 1 year)",,,,Brain position and shape,"Brain shifted backward and upward inside the skull after spaceflight, in proportion to time in space; top-of-brain regions moved most; vertical position recovered by 6 months, backward shift only partly",shift,2.52,mm upward shift of the supplementary motor cortex in the 1-year group (95% CI 2.25 to 2.79),6,partly,"Abstract; Results, Global Brain Shift",https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2505682122
kramer-2020,2020,Radiology 295(3):640-648,10.1148/radiol.2020191413,NASA,astronauts,11,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,long-duration (days not in abstract),,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,Lateral ventricles were larger on postflight day 1; combined brain + CSF volume stayed up 28 mL at 360 days,increase,2.2,mL increase in lateral ventricle volume at postflight day 1 (P < .001),12,no,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020191413
kramer-2020,2020,Radiology 295(3):640-648,10.1148/radiol.2020191413,NASA,astronauts,11,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,long-duration (days not in abstract),,,,White matter,White-matter volume measured larger on postflight day 1,increase,26,mL (P < .001),,,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020191413
vanombergen-2019,2019,Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 116(21):10531-10536,10.1073/pnas.1820354116,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,11,11,"age-, sex- and education-matched ground controls",about 6 months,169,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,Ventricles were larger right after a 6-month flight and had not fully shrunk back 7 months later,increase,11.6,"% increase in total ventricular volume at about 10 days after landing (lateral 13.3%, third 10.4%)",7,partly,Abstract; Table 1,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820354116
roberts-2021,2021,Aging Brain 1:100017,10.1016/j.nbas.2021.100017,NASA,astronauts,18,18,matched healthy adults (OASIS-3 database); a further 79 older adults as second comparison,about 6 months,173.4,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,Ventricles grew faster in ISS astronauts than normal ageing: 6.86% a year vs 2.23% in matched adults,increase,6.86,% per year change in total ventricular volume (matched controls 2.23%; older adults 4.18%),,not tested,Abstract; Results,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbas.2021.100017
hupfeld-2020,2020,Cereb Cortex Commun 1(1):tgaa023,10.1093/texcom/tgaa023,NASA,astronauts,12,20 (T1) / 14 (diffusion),"healthy ground adults from OASIS/ADNI, used only as an ageing reference","mixed (10 astronauts about 6 months, 2 about 12 months)",,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,"Lateral ventricles grew about 17-24% after 6 months; one of two 12-month astronauts grew 25% (left) and 23% (right), the other 2% and 3%; little recovery by 6 months after landing",increase,17 to 24,"% increase in lateral ventricle volume (6-month group, left 17 +/- 12, right 24 +/- 6)",6,no,"Abstract; Results, Fluid Shifts",https://doi.org/10.1093/texcom/tgaa023
mcgregor-2023,2023,Sci Rep 13:7878,10.1038/s41598-023-33331-8,NASA,astronauts,30,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,"mixed (8 about 2 weeks, 18 about 6 months, 4 about 1 year)",,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,"Longer missions grew the right lateral and third ventricles more, mostly in the first 6 months; astronauts with under 3 years between flights showed little or no enlargement",increase,0.00056,"third-ventricle volume change per day of mission (beta, P = 0.0004); 2-week crews grew far less than 6-month crews",,not tested,"Abstract; Results, Longer missions induce greater fluid shifts",https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33331-8
mcgregor-2025,2025,NPJ Microgravity 11:59,10.1038/s41526-025-00505-9,NASA,astronauts,"37 (30 with MRI, 37 with eye data, 22 with both)",,none; each astronaut vs own preflight data,"mixed (8 short, 22 long in MRI sample)",146.8,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,Women showed a larger loss of extracellular water around the top of the brain than men,decrease,,no single number in text; voxelwise map (sex difference),,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-025-00505-9
barisano-2022,2022,Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 119(17):e2120439119,10.1073/pnas.2120439119,mixed,mixed,37 long-duration (24 NASA + 13 Roscosmos) + small ESA group; plus 7 NASA shuttle (2 weeks),13,age-matched healthy volunteers scanned 1 year apart on Earth,about 6 months,180,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,Lateral ventricles enlarged and the CSF space at the top of the brain shrank after about 6 months on the ISS; both crews similar; no change after 2-week shuttle flights,increase,,"significant (P <= 0.01); percentages are in Dataset S1, not in the text",,not tested,Results; Fig. 1,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120439119
jillings-2020,2020,Sci Adv 6(36):eaaz9488,10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,11,13,age-matched ground controls scanned twice,about 6 months,171,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,CSF fraction rose in the lower brain and ventricles and fell below the top of the brain after 6 months in space; at 7 months whole-brain differences from preflight had mostly gone,shift,,voxelwise CSF fractions; no single number,7,partly,"Results, reversible changes in CSF, GM, and WM",https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488
lee-2019,2019,JAMA Neurol 76(4):412-419,10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.4882,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; 7 shuttle (30 days or less) vs 8 ISS (200 days or less) crew,mixed,,,200,Fluid spaces and ventricles,"Extracellular water rose in frontal, temporal and occipital lobes and fell at the back of the top of the brain, by about 2.5% to 4.0% across regions",mixed,2.5 to 4.0,% change in extracellular water across brain regions,,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.4882
warthen-2025,2025,NPJ Microgravity 11:14,10.1038/s41526-025-00468-x,NASA,astronauts,13 in Abstract; 10 in Results,10 in Abstract; 7 in Results,healthy controls scanned on the same MRI,about 6 months,179 in Abstract; 159 in Results,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,CSF around the brain moved down relative to the skull; lateral ventricles were larger,shift,-2.45,mm downward shift of outer CSF (eaCSF) centre of mass; lateral ventricle volume +2.63 cm3 vs +0.04 in controls,,not tested,Abstract; Table 1,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-025-00468-x
tang-2026-expphys,2026,Exp Physiol 111(9):4209-4222,10.1113/EP093112,mixed,mixed,13 cosmonauts + a small ESA astronaut sample,15 (cosmonaut controls) + 8 (astronaut controls),matched Earth-bound controls,long-duration (days not read),,,,Fluid spaces and ventricles,Third-ventricle growth after long flights tracked eye-globe changes but not optic-nerve-sheath changes,increase,,correlation only; see Eye row for sheath volumes,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1113/EP093112
koppelmans-2016,2016,npj Microgravity 2:2,10.1038/s41526-016-0001-9,NASA,astronauts,27,,none; 13 shuttle (about 2 weeks) vs 14 ISS (about 6 months) crew,mixed,162.0,12,200,Grey matter,Grey-matter volume fell across the temporal and frontal poles and around the eyes after flight (larger after ISS than shuttle) and rose in the leg area of the sensorimotor cortex,mixed,,voxelwise map; no single number,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-016-0001-9
mcgregor-2023,2023,Sci Rep 13:7878,10.1038/s41598-023-33331-8,NASA,astronauts,30,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,"mixed (8 about 2 weeks, 18 about 6 months, 4 about 1 year)",,,,Grey matter,Apparent grey-matter increase at the top of the brain and decrease at the base after flight,shift,,voxelwise map; no single number,,not tested,"Results, first section",https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33331-8
jillings-2020,2020,Sci Adv 6(36):eaaz9488,10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,11,13,age-matched ground controls scanned twice,about 6 months,171,,,Grey matter,"Grey-matter changes after flight were shape changes from the fluid shift, not net tissue loss",shift,,voxelwise fractions,7,partly,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488
batool-2025,2025,NeuroSci 6(3):70,10.3390/neurosci6030070,NASA,astronauts,17,,none; compared with the expected change from ageing,about 6 months,,,,Grey matter,"Left hippocampus lost volume over a 6-month ISS mission, more than expected from ageing",decrease,-1.513,% mean change in left hippocampal volume (SD 2.218); expected ageing change about -0.108% a year,,not tested,Abstract; Results,https://doi.org/10.3390/neurosci6030070
tang-2026-brainage,2026,NPJ Microgravity 12:24,10.1038/s41526-026-00575-3,mixed,mixed,,,"age-, sex- and education-matched Earth-bound controls",long-duration (days not read),,,,Grey matter,"Machine-learning brain age came out about 0.84 years higher right after flight than before, in cosmonauts",increase,0.842,"years of brain-age delta, preflight vs immediate postflight (cosmonauts)",,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-026-00575-3
lee-2019,2019,JAMA Neurol 76(4):412-419,10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.4882,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; 7 shuttle (30 days or less) vs 8 ISS (200 days or less) crew,mixed,,,200,White matter,"White-matter diffusion changed in the right longitudinal fasciculi, corticospinal tract and cerebellar peduncles, by about 0.75% to 1.25%",mixed,0.75 to 1.25,% change in white-matter diffusion measures,,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.4882
jillings-2020,2020,Sci Adv 6(36):eaaz9488,10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,11,13,age-matched ground controls scanned twice,about 6 months,171,,,White matter,White matter in the cerebellum increased after flight and was still increased 7 months later,increase,,voxelwise fractions; ROI test significant,7,no,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz9488
doroshin-2022,2022,Front Neural Circuits 16:815838,10.3389/fncir.2022.815838,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,12,13,"age-, sex- and education-matched ground controls",about 6 months,172,,,White matter,"Fibre tracts in the corpus callosum, arcuate fasciculus, corticospinal and cerebellar tracts changed after 6 months; many changes were still present at 7 months",mixed,,tract-level differential tractography; no single number,7,partly,Abstract; Discussion,https://doi.org/10.3389/fncir.2022.815838
mcgregor-2023,2023,Sci Rep 13:7878,10.1038/s41598-023-33331-8,NASA,astronauts,30,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,"mixed (8 about 2 weeks, 18 about 6 months, 4 about 1 year)",,,,White matter,No reliable change in white-matter diffusion at group level,no change,,n/a,,not tested,"Results, first section",https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33331-8
barisano-2022,2022,Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 119(17):e2120439119,10.1073/pnas.2120439119,mixed,mixed,37 long-duration (24 NASA + 13 Roscosmos) + small ESA group; plus 7 NASA shuttle (2 weeks),13,age-matched healthy volunteers scanned 1 year apart on Earth,about 6 months,180,,,Perivascular spaces,"Perivascular spaces in white matter and basal ganglia grew after about 6 months on the ISS, more in NASA astronauts than cosmonauts; no growth after 2-week shuttle flights",increase,,significant; percentages are in Dataset S1,,not tested,Results; Fig. 1,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120439119
hupfeld-2022-pvs,2022,Sci Rep 12:7238,10.1038/s41598-022-11593-y,NASA,astronauts,15,11,ground control participants with complete MRI sets,about 6 months,190.7,,,Perivascular spaces,First-time astronauts showed more perivascular-space volume after flight; experienced astronauts did not,mixed,,p = 0.020 for novice vs experienced,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11593-y
burles-2024,2024,Front Physiol 15:1360353,10.3389/fphys.2024.1360353,NASA,astronauts,16,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight scan,about 6 months,,,,Perivascular spaces,Small brain bleeds (microbleeds) seen in 6 of 16 astronauts before flight; no significant increase up to 7 months after,no change,6 of 16,astronauts with microbleeds at preflight (15 microbleeds in total),7,not tested,Abstract; Results,https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2024.1360353
mader-2011,2011,Ophthalmology 118(10):2058-2069,10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021,NASA,astronauts,7 examined + about 300 by questionnaire,,none,about 6 months,,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),"7 astronauts had eye findings after about 6 months in space (disc edema in 5, globe flattening in 5, choroidal folds in 5); a questionnaire of about 300 astronauts reported worse near or distance vision in about 29% after short and 60% after long missions",increase,60,% of long-mission astronauts (about 300 surveyed) reporting worse distance or near vision (about 29% after short missions),,partly,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021
kramer-2012,2012,Radiology 263(3):819-827,10.1148/radiol.12111986,NASA,astronauts,27,,none (all had earlier microgravity exposure),mixed (not stated),,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),"Of 27 astronauts, 7 (26%) had flattening of the back of the eye globe, 4 (15%) optic-nerve protrusion, 3 (11%) a dented pituitary",increase,26,% of 27 astronauts with posterior globe flattening,,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.12111986
rosenberg-2021,2021,JAMA Netw Open 4(10):e2131465,10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.31465,NASA,astronauts,12,,SANS (n = 4) vs no SANS (n = 8) astronauts,long-duration,,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),4 of 12 astronauts met the SANS criteria; they had larger flight-related increases in venous sinus volume than the other 8,increase,4 of 12,astronauts with SANS (33.33%),,not tested,Results,https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.31465
barisano-2022,2022,Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 119(17):e2120439119,10.1073/pnas.2120439119,mixed,mixed,37 long-duration (24 NASA + 13 Roscosmos) + small ESA group; plus 7 NASA shuttle (2 weeks),13,age-matched healthy volunteers scanned 1 year apart on Earth,about 6 months,180,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),8 of 24 NASA ISS astronauts (33.3%) developed clinical signs of SANS; they had larger white-matter perivascular spaces before and after flight,increase,8 of 24,NASA astronauts with clinical SANS (33.3%),,not tested,Results,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120439119
mcgregor-2025,2025,NPJ Microgravity 11:59,10.1038/s41526-025-00505-9,NASA,astronauts,"37 (30 with MRI, 37 with eye data, 22 with both)",,none; each astronaut vs own preflight data,"mixed (8 short, 22 long in MRI sample)",146.8,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),21 of 37 astronauts (56.7%) developed SANS during their mission; males about 3 times more likely than females (not significant); no link between brain changes and SANS,increase,56.7,% of 37 astronauts who developed SANS (21 of 37),,not tested,"Results, SANS Status; Table 1",https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-025-00505-9
hupfeld-2022-pvs,2022,Sci Rep 12:7238,10.1038/s41598-022-11593-y,NASA,astronauts,15,11,ground control participants with complete MRI sets,about 6 months,190.7,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),SANS was not linked to perivascular-space number or shape,no change,,n/a,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11593-y
tang-2026-expphys,2026,Exp Physiol 111(9):4209-4222,10.1113/EP093112,mixed,mixed,13 cosmonauts + a small ESA astronaut sample,15 (cosmonaut controls) + 8 (astronaut controls),matched Earth-bound controls,long-duration (days not read),,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),Optic-nerve sheath volume grew and optic nerves lengthened after long-duration flight,increase,27.22,mm3 increase in left optic-nerve-sheath volume (right +11.93 mm3); optic nerves 0.38 mm (right) and 0.47 mm (left) longer,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1113/EP093112
brunstetter-2025,2025,JAMA Ophthalmol 143(11):933-937,10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2025.3406,NASA,astronauts,16 (of 71 NASA ISS long-duration astronauts),,none; mission 1 vs mission 2 of the same astronaut,about 6 months,,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),"SANS or no-SANS on a first ISS mission predicted the same on the second mission: sensitivity 85.7%, specificity 100%",no change,85.7,% sensitivity (specificity 100%) of earlier SANS status for the next mission,,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2025.3406
carter-2026,2026,JAMA Ophthalmol 144(8):682-690,10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2026.2140,NASA,astronauts,7,5,5 volunteers in head-down-tilt bed rest (analogue comparison),about 6 months,,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),A second 6-month mission did not raise optic-disc swelling or ventricle growth compared with the first,no change,0.1,mL difference in lateral ventricle growth between mission 2 and mission 1 (95% CI -0.9 to 1.1),,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2026.2140
garrett-2019,2019,Science 364(6436):eaau8650,10.1126/science.aau8650,NASA,astronauts,1,1,identical twin brother who stayed on Earth,about 1 year,340,,,Eye and optic nerve (SANS),"After 340 days, choroidal and retinal thickness rose in the flight twin, whose choroidal folds were already present before the mission",increase,,see paper (figures); no single number read,,not tested,"Results, Vision-related",https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau8650
demertzi-2016,2016,Brain Struct Funct 221:2873-2876,10.1007/s00429-015-1054-3,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,1,,"case study, own preflight scan (and ground controls)",about 6 months,169,,,Brain activity and connectivity,Motor-cortex to cerebellum connectivity and the default mode network differed after 6 months; supplementary motor area activity changed in a motor-imagery task,mixed,,no single number,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-015-1054-3
pechenkova-2019,2019,Front Physiol 10:761,10.3389/fphys.2019.00761,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,11,11,age- and sex-matched healthy men not in the space programme,about 6 months,183,,,Brain activity and connectivity,"No change in activation after flight, but connectivity of sensorimotor, vestibular and visual areas shifted",mixed,,no single number (network-based statistics),,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00761
jillings-2023,2023,Commun Biol 6:46,10.1038/s42003-022-04382-w,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,13 (Methods; Discussion says 15),,matched ground control group,long-duration,,,,Brain activity and connectivity,"Connectivity fell in the posterior cingulate and thalamus and rose in the right angular gyrus, and stayed changed 8 months later; insula connectivity dropped but reversed",mixed,,no single number (Bayes factors; PCC-thalamus-angular gyrus),8,partly,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-04382-w
salazar-2023,2023,Cereb Cortex 33(6):2641-2654,10.1093/cercor/bhac232,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight data,about 6 months,,,,Brain activity and connectivity,"Brain activity during a spatial working-memory task did not change, but connectivity of the visual areas fell",mixed,,no single number,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac232
hupfeld-2022-vest,2022,Cereb Cortex 32(4):755-769,10.1093/cercor/bhab239,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight data,about 6 months,,,,Brain activity and connectivity,Brain response to vestibular (balance-organ) stimulation changed after flight and recovered by 3 months,mixed,,no single number,3,yes,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhab239
tays-2025-cc,2025,Cereb Cortex 35(2):bhae502,10.1093/cercor/bhae502,NASA,astronauts,13,13,Earth-bound controls on the same timeline,about 6 months,,,,Brain activity and connectivity,Brain activity during a visuomotor task rose after flight and took up to 90 days to return to preflight,increase,90,days for post-flight activity to return to preflight levels,3,yes,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhae502
tays-2025-npj,2025,NPJ Microgravity 11:85,10.1038/s41526-025-00536-2,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight data,about 6 months,188.1,,,Brain activity and connectivity,"Before flight, how separate the sensory brain networks were predicted balance after landing",mixed,,no single number (OP2 network segregation),,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-025-00536-2
bubeev-2024,2024,Aerosp Med Hum Perform 95(4):187-193,10.3357/AMHP.6192.2024,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,8,,none (three task difficulty levels compared),in-flight training session,,,,Brain activity and connectivity,The P300 brain wave could be measured during manual docking training in space; its size was largest at medium difficulty,mixed,,no single number,,not tested,"Abstract, Results",https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.6192.2024
salazar-2023,2023,Cereb Cortex 33(6):2641-2654,10.1093/cercor/bhac232,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight data,about 6 months,,,,Thinking tests (cognition),Spatial working-memory performance did not change after flight,no change,,no significant change in SWM performance,6,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac232
dev-2024,2024,Front Physiol 15:1451269,10.3389/fphys.2024.1451269,NASA,astronauts,25,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight baseline,about 6 months,,,,Thinking tests (cognition),"In flight, processing speed, visual working memory and sustained attention were slowed early in the mission; risk-taking fell; no systematic decline over 6 months",mixed,0.31,"z-score points slower summary speed, early flight vs preflight (small effect)",,yes,Abstract; Results 3.1; Table 2,https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2024.1451269
dev-2024,2024,Front Physiol 15:1451269,10.3389/fphys.2024.1451269,NASA,astronauts,25,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight baseline,about 6 months,,,,Thinking tests (cognition),"After landing, summary speed was not different from preflight",no change,-0.13,"z-score, summary speed, early post-flight (SD .64)",1,yes,Results 3.1; Table 2,https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2024.1451269
tays-2021,2021,Front Neural Circuits 15:723504,10.3389/fncir.2021.723504,NASA,astronauts,15,,none; each astronaut vs own preflight baseline,about 6 months,188,,,Thinking tests (cognition),Thinking and dual-task tests were maintained in flight and after landing; balance and mobility fell after landing and recovered within 30 days,no change,30,days for balance and mobility to recover,1,yes,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.3389/fncir.2021.723504
clement-2023,2023,Front Neurol 14:1284029,10.3389/fneur.2023.1284029,NASA,astronauts,28,30,30 people with bilateral vestibulopathy (patient comparison group),about 6 months,,,,Thinking tests (cognition),Reaction time and time perception of people with balance-organ damage matched astronauts in flight,mixed,,no single number (comparison with 30 patients),,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1284029
kuldavletova-2023,2023,Front Physiol 14:1141078,10.3389/fphys.2023.1141078,NASA,astronauts,10,15,healthy non-astronaut participants on the same schedule,long-duration (more than 3 months),,,,Thinking tests (cognition),Reaction time got slower in flight and time intervals were under-produced while counting aloud,decrease,,reaction time increased in flight vs preflight and vs controls (size in paper figures),,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1141078
navarro-2023,2023,NPJ Microgravity 9:6,10.1038/s41526-023-00250-x,NASA,astronauts,10,15,healthy non-astronaut participants,about 6 to 8 months,,,,Thinking tests (cognition),"Time perception shifted in flight: one minute felt longer and hours felt shorter, while days since docking or spacewalk were judged accurately",mixed,,relative overestimation of 1 minute in flight; underestimation of hour-long intervals,,not tested,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-023-00250-x
manzey-1998,1998,Ergonomics 41(4):537-559,10.1080/001401398186991,Roscosmos,cosmonauts,1,,none; in-flight and post-flight vs own preflight,longer than 1 year (438 days),438,,,Thinking tests (cognition),"One cosmonaut tested 29 times during 438 days on Mir: no impairment of basic thinking functions in flight; mood, tracking and time-sharing were worse in the first 3 weeks in space and first 2 weeks after landing, then back to baseline; no lasting deficit at 6 months",no change,438,days in space with no lasting deficit in reasoning or memory tests,6,yes,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1080/001401398186991
garrett-2019,2019,Science 364(6436):eaau8650,10.1126/science.aau8650,NASA,astronauts,1,1,identical twin brother who stayed on Earth,about 1 year,340,,,Thinking tests (cognition),Flight twin's speed and accuracy fell on landing and his overall efficiency stayed below baseline up to 6 months; during flight he was as good as before,decrease,0.0016,P value for the postflight drop in cognitive efficiency (speed + accuracy) vs the Earth twin,6,no,"Results, Cognitive performance",https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau8650
jones-2024,2024,Nature 632(8027):1155-1164,10.1038/s41586-024-07648-x,commercial,commercial,4,,none; in-flight and post-flight vs own preflight,short under 30 days,3,,,Thinking tests (cognition),Four civilians flew 3 days: performance was largely unaffected; slower on four of ten tests in flight; post-flight the same as preflight except one test,mixed,4,of 10 Cognition tests slower in flight (3 of the 4 also less accurate),0,yes,"Results, The Inspiration4 crew's neurobehavioural functions",https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07648-x
houerbi-2024,2024,Nat Commun 15:4862,10.1038/s41467-024-48841-w,commercial,commercial,4,,none; in-flight and post-flight vs own preflight,short under 30 days,3,,,Blood markers of brain injury,Blood proteins linked to the brain changed within days of a 3-day flight; most vesicle proteins recovered within 6 months but 73% of plasma proteins were still off,mixed,73,"% of differentially abundant plasma proteins still perturbed after flight (all proteins, not only brain-linked)",6,partly,Abstract,https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48841-w