Is America losing the lead in brain science? US vs China neuroscience, 2000 to 2026

01 Key findings

1. China has not passed the US in neuroscience. 18,520 US papers vs 14,534 Chinese in 2025 (78.5%); in 2026 so far China is at 89.7%, the closest yet.OpenAlex; IQ Metrics count
2. The US lead is wider at the top. 393 vs 240 papers in the top 1% most cited in 2025; China is 2nd there since 2022.OpenAlex citation percentiles
3. Neuroscience is the exception. China has out-published the US across all sciences every year since 2022; in neuroscience it is at 78%.OpenAlex; IQ Metrics calculation
4. From 14th to 2nd. China ranked 14th in 2000 and has been 2nd every year since 2013; its count grew 29-fold.OpenAlex; IQ Metrics ranks
5. Fewer joint papers. US-China co-authored papers peaked at 1,232 in 2018; the share of China’s papers with a US author fell from 18.5% to 7.4%.OpenAlex
6. The money is not comparable. BRAIN: $321 million at NIH in FY2025; Human Brain Project: €381 million in EU grants over 10 years; China’s 2021 call: 3.148 billion yuan.NIH; CORDIS; MOST

02 Statistics to quote

03 Has China overtaken the US in neuroscience?

No: in 2025 researchers in the United States were on 18,520 neuroscience papers and researchers in China on 14,534, 78.5% of the US count, by our count of OpenAlex records as of 9 November 2026 ^[1]. The gap is the smallest it has ever been. In 2000 China’s count was 4.3% of the US count; in 2026 so far, to 9 November, it is 89.7% (15,351 US papers, 13,768 Chinese).

We counted every journal article and review whose main topic OpenAlex places in its Neuroscience field, 1,690,202 papers from 2000 to 2026, and credited each paper to every country among its authors’ affiliations. This is called whole counting: a paper written by a team in Boston and a team in Shanghai counts once for the United States and once for China. OpenAlex is an open, CC0 index of scholarly works; it covers more journals every year, so we also give the world totals in every table.

Figure 1

The gap is closing, but the US still publishes more neuroscience papers

Neuroscience papers a year with at least one author in the United States or in China, 2001-2025, in thousands (2000 is in the table). In 2025 the US had 18,520 and China 14,534, 78.5% of the US count. Whole counting: a paper with authors in both countries counts for both. OpenAlex, as of 9 November 2026.

United StatesChina

0510152025

18.514.5

20012007201320192025

The US count rose until about 2010 and has stayed near 18,700 a year since, while China’s grew 12.9% a year on average from 2020 to 2025 (IQ Metrics calculation). If both kept those rates, China’s count would pass the US count in about 2027. That is arithmetic on past growth, not a forecast: growth rates change, and OpenAlex keeps adding older and newer records.

The pattern holds when the definition changes. OpenAlex files clinical neurology under medicine, not neuroscience; in that subfield the US had 15,386 papers in 2025 and China 10,141, 65.9% of the US count ^[1]. For a sense of scale, our study of brain mapping shows how much of the brain those papers have actually charted, and how much of our brain we use explains one of the oldest myths the field keeps answering.

Neuroscience paper (in this study)

A journal article or review whose primary topic OpenAlex assigns to its field Neuroscience: cognitive, cellular and molecular, behavioural and developmental neuroscience, biological psychiatry, sensory and endocrine systems, and neurology research ^[1].

Whole counting

Each paper counts once for every country among its authors’ affiliations. Country totals therefore add up to more than the number of papers; shares of the world add up to more than 100%.

Top 1% most-cited paper

A paper whose citations put it in the top 1% of works of the same type, year and subfield in OpenAlex. Citations take years to build up, so the recent years are provisional ^[2].

Human Brain Project (HBP)

A ten-year European Union flagship research project, 2013-2023, coordinated from EPFL in Switzerland and later EBRAINS, to build brain simulation and data platforms ^{[11] [15]}.

BRAIN Initiative

The US Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies Initiative, launched on 2 April 2013; NIH funds most of it, with a base budget plus money from the 21st Century Cures Act ^{[10] [9]}.

China brain project

The “Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Research” major project of China’s Science and Technology Innovation 2030 programme, run by the Ministry of Science and Technology; its first call opened in September 2021 ^[17].

EBRAINS

The research infrastructure for brain data, atlases and simulation that the Human Brain Project left behind; EBRAINS 2.0 is its EU grant for 2024-2026 ^[16].

Papers per million people

A country’s neuroscience papers in a year divided by its population in the same year (World Bank), times one million. It measures research output per person, not the ability of the people ^[4].

04 Who leads neuroscience research?

The United States leads neuroscience research by paper count: it ranked 1st in every year from 2000 to 2026, with 18,520 papers in 2025, ahead of China (14,534), the United Kingdom (4,925), Germany (4,635) and Japan (3,443) ^[1]. China moved from 14th in 2000 to 6th in 2005, 5th in 2010 and 2nd in 2013, and has held 2nd since; Japan, 2nd in 2000, was 5th in 2025.

Figure 2

China climbed from 14th to 2nd; the US never lost 1st place

Rank by neuroscience papers in 2000, 2008, 2016 and 2025, for the ten largest producers of 2025 (1 = most papers). China was 14th in 2000 and has been 2nd every year since 2013; India rose from 25th to 8th. Whole counting, OpenAlex, as of 9 November 2026.

United StatesChinaOther countries

2000'002008'082016'162025'25

United States 1China 14United Kingdom 3Germany 4Japan 2Canada 5Italy 7India 25France 6Brazil 18

1 United States2 China3 United Kingdom4 Germany5 Japan6 Canada7 Italy8 India9 France10 Brazil

Shares tell the same story with the size of the field in view. Of all neuroscience papers with a known author country, 41.1% had a US author in 2000 and 27.4% in 2025; China went from 1.8% to 21.5%. Of the ten largest producers only China, India and Brazil gained more than a percentage point; Japan lost 5.9 points. Papers with a known author country rose by 15,096 from 2010 to 2025, and China’s count rose by 10,744 in the same years (IQ Metrics calculation) ^[1].

Figure 3

Share of the world's neuroscience papers, 2000 and 2025

Share of all neuroscience papers with a known author country that have at least one author in each country. The US share fell from 41.1% to 27.4%, China's rose from 1.8% to 21.5%. Shares add up to more than 100% because a paper counts for every country among its authors. As of 9 November 2026.

United StatesChinaOther countries

2000200020252025

US 41.1%China 1.8%UK 9.3%Germany 9.1%Japan 11.0%Canada 5.6%Italy 4.3%India 0.5%France 5.4%Brazil 1.0%

27.4% US21.5% China7.3% UK6.9% Germany5.1% Japan4.9% Canada4.3% Italy4.2% India3.5% France3.3% Brazil

Splitting every paper into exactly one group removes the double counting. In 2025, 17,440 papers had a US author and no Chinese author, 1,080 had both, 13,454 had a Chinese author and no US author, and 35,521 had neither. The “rest of the world” is still the largest group: Europe, Japan, Canada, Australia, India and Brazil together publish more neuroscience than either of the two leaders alone.

Figure 4

Every neuroscience paper with a known author country, split four ways, every fifth year

Each paper sits in exactly one part: a US author but no China author, both, a China author but no US author, or neither. In 2000 the US was on 41.1% of these papers and China on 1.8%; in 2025 the US on 27.4% and China on 21.5%. Papers whose authors have no country in OpenAlex (31% in 2000, 15% in 2025) are left out. As of 9 November 2026.

US without a China authorUS and China togetherChina without a US authorRest of the world

27,7572000

33,4662005

52,3992010

53,1622015

57,6292020

67,4952025

Figure 5

Ten years of change in the 15 largest producers

Neuroscience papers in 2015 and in 2025, whole counting. China went from 5,522 to 14,534 (+163%); the United States from 18,872 to 18,520. As of 9 November 2026.

20152025

United States18,52018,872

China5,52214,534

United Kingdom4,9255,008

Germany4,6354,943

Japan3,4433,564

Canada3,1163,284

Italy2,2782,916

India9142,804

France2,3362,442

Brazil1,3222,215

Spain1,6882,042

Australia1,9002,094

South Korea1,3871,766

Netherlands1,6051,734

Türkiye4931,432

020,000

Neuroscience papers a year

Over the last ten years two smaller producers grew even faster than China from a lower base: India (914 papers in 2015, 2,804 in 2025, x3.1) and Türkiye (493 to 1,432, x2.9), against x2.6 for China; the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan and Canada stayed within about 6% of their 2015 counts. A ranking of output is not a ranking of talent: it follows the number of funded researchers and the journals they publish in, which is why our count of prize-winning universities and what was measured about Nobel winners tell different stories.

05 Does China publish the most-cited neuroscience papers?

No: in 2025 the United States had 393 neuroscience papers in the top 1% most cited of their year and subfield and China 240, 61.1% of the US count; together they hold 45.9% and 28.0% of that elite group ^{[1] [2]}. China has been 2nd in this measure since 2022, after the United Kingdom. Recent years are provisional, because a paper from 2025 has had at most two years to collect citations.

Figure 6

In the most-cited neuroscience, the US lead is wider

Papers in the top 1% most cited of their year and subfield (OpenAlex percentile), every fifth year. In 2025: United States 393, China 240, 61.1% of the US count; China has been 2nd since 2022. Recent papers have had little time to be cited. As of 9 November 2026.

ChinaUnited States

20000283

20054345

201022493

201562539

2020122443

2025240393

0200400600

Top-1% neuroscience papers a year

Neuroscience is the exception to China’s lead in science as a whole. Across all fields in OpenAlex, China first had more papers than the United States in 2011, fell back, and has been ahead every year since 2022; in 2025 its count was 161% of the US count. In the top 1% most-cited papers across all fields China passed the United States in 2022 ^[1]. Rankings built on a fixed set of journals, such as the Nature Index, give their own answers; our counts cover every article and review OpenAlex holds.

Figure 7

China passed the US in science as a whole, not in neuroscience

China's paper count as a percentage of the US count, 2001-2025 (100 = level). All sciences: 161% in 2025; neuroscience: 78%; the top 1% most-cited neuroscience papers: 61%; clinical neurology, which OpenAlex files under medicine: 66%. IQ Metrics calculation, as of 9 November 2026.

All sciencesNeuroscienceClinical neurologyNeuroscience, top 1% cited

0255075100125150175

161786661

20012007201320192025

Why the difference? China’s lead across all sciences comes from fields other than neuroscience, which started from a much smaller base: in 2000 China had 493 neuroscience papers, 4.3% of the US count; in 2025 it had 14,534, a 29-fold rise, against 1.6 times for the United States (IQ Metrics calculation). An earlier bibliometric study of 2006-2015 also found China rising faster than any other country in neuroscience while the US stayed the largest producer ^[3].

06 Which country publishes the most neuroscience per person?

Switzerland publishes the most neuroscience per person among countries with 300 or more papers: 146 papers per million people in 2025, ahead of Denmark (113), Sweden (96) and the Netherlands (96) ^{[1] [4]}. The United States, with 54.2 per million, ranks 16 of 41 such countries; China, with 10.3, ranks 32, because its output is spread over a population 4.1 times larger.

Figure 8

Neuroscience papers per million people, 2025

Papers with at least one author in the country per million residents. Switzerland leads the countries with 300 or more papers (146 per million); the United States has 54 and China 10.3. Population: World Bank 2025. Taiwan has no World Bank population, so it has no value; Gibraltar, Monaco and Curaçao are too small for this map and are in the table. As of 9 November 2026.

100 or more50 to 9920 to 495 to 19Under 5No paper or no population

Output per person follows research spending. The United States spent 3.45% of its GDP on research and development in 2023 and China 2.58%; the US had 4,937 researchers per million people (2022) and China 2,107 (2023) ^{[5] [6]}. Among the 29 countries with 500 or more papers, those that spend more of their economy on research publish more neuroscience per person (correlation 0.61 with the log of papers per million; IQ Metrics calculation), but the link is loose: Israel spends 6.35% and publishes 73 papers per million, South Korea 4.94% and 34, both below Switzerland. Neither number measures how intelligent a population is; they measure research systems.

Figure 9

Research spending and neuroscience output per person

29 countries with 500 or more neuroscience papers in 2025: R&D spending as a share of GDP (latest World Bank year) across, papers per million people up (log scale); bubble area = papers. United States: 3.45% and 54.2 per million; China: 2.58% and 10.3. A link, not a cause.

United StatesChinaOther countries

Neuroscience papers 20251,0005,00015,000

Neuroscience papers per million people (log scale)

110100

United StatesChinaGermanyJapanCanadaItalyIndiaFranceBrazilSpainAustraliaSouth KoreaNetherlandsTürkiyeRussiaSwitzerlandIranPolandSwedenBelgiumIndonesiaIsraelDenmarkHong KongSaudi ArabiaEgyptMexico

0%1%2%3%4%5%6%7%

R&D spending, % of GDP

07 Which areas of neuroscience does China lead?

China leads the United States in two of OpenAlex’s eight neuroscience areas: developmental neuroscience (2,575 Chinese papers vs 2,019 US papers in 2021-2025) and biological psychiatry (1,110 vs 959) ^[1]. In neurology research filed under neuroscience the two are almost level (11,010 vs 11,121); in cognitive neuroscience, the largest area, the US has 39,224 papers and China 21,954.

Figure 10

Where China already matches the US: two of eight areas

Share of each area's neuroscience papers, 2021-2025, with at least one author in the country. China is ahead of the US in developmental neuroscience (28.4% vs 22.3% of papers) and biological psychiatry (23.3% vs 20.2%). Whole counting; rows add up to more than 100%. OpenAlex subfields, as of 9 November 2026.

0%40% or more

USUSCNCNUKUKDEDEJPJPCACAITITFRFRCognitive25%14%9%7%4%5%4%4%Cellular & molecular32%17%6%6%6%4%4%4%Neurology21%21%5%6%5%4%4%2%Sensory systems22%16%5%8%7%2%3%3%Endocrine & autonomic29%12%6%6%6%4%3%4%Developmental22%28%5%7%6%4%3%4%Behavioural27%8%4%9%3%5%3%2%Biol. psychiatry20%23%7%5%4%4%4%3%

Twenty years earlier the picture was different: in 2001-2005 China had 912 cognitive neuroscience papers against 21,026 for the United States, and 19 in biological psychiatry against 232 (whole counting) ^[1]. The activity index below compares each country’s mix of areas with the world mix (1 = the same mix). China leans towards developmental neuroscience (1.77), biological psychiatry (1.46) and neurology (1.32), and away from behavioural neuroscience (0.48); the United States leans towards cellular and molecular neuroscience (1.22). In cognitive neuroscience, the area closest to thinking and intelligence, China’s index is 0.87 and the US index 0.96; our pages on which part of the brain IQ tests measure and brain size and IQ show what that field studies.

Figure 11

Pick a country: what its neuroscience focuses on

Activity index by area, 2021-2025: the country's share of the papers in an area divided by its share of all neuroscience papers (1 = the world mix, dashed). China is strongest in developmental neuroscience (1.77) and biological psychiatry (1.46); the United States in cellular and molecular neuroscience (1.22). IQ Metrics calculation.

ChinaWorld mix

Choose a countryUnited StatesChinaUnited KingdomGermanyJapanCanadaItalyFranceIndiaSpainAustraliaBrazil

Cognitive0.87World 1.00Cellular & molecular1.05World 1.00Neurology1.32World 1.00Sensory0.99World 1.00Endocrine0.74World 1.00Developmental1.77World 1.00Behavioural0.48World 1.00Biol. psychiatry1.46World 1.00

08 Do American and Chinese neuroscientists still work together?

Yes, but less than before: 1,080 neuroscience papers had authors in both countries in 2025, down from a peak of 1,232 in 2018 ^[1]. In 2018, 18.5% of China’s neuroscience papers had a US co-author; in 2025, 7.4%. For US papers the share with a Chinese co-author was 5.8% in 2025 (IQ Metrics calculation).

Figure 12

US-China co-authored neuroscience papers peaked in 2018

Neuroscience papers with at least one author in the United States and one in China, per year. 1,232 in 2018, 1,080 in 2025. In 2018, 18.5% of China's papers had a US co-author; in 2025, 7.4%. As of 9 November 2026.

200029

200148

200249

200389

200495

2005154

2006206

2007224

2008317

2009344

2010484

2011518

2012603

2013722

2014876

2015996

2016976

20171,159

20181,232

20191,187

20201,219

20211,143

20221,109

20231,003

2024988

20251,080

The joint count grew every year but one (2016) from 2000 to 2018, from 29 papers to 1,232, then fell back while China’s own output kept rising. The data show the change, not its causes: we report the counts and leave the reasons to the people who decide where scientists work and publish. Among the most-cited papers the joint count stayed between 38 and 53 a year from 2017 to 2025 ^[1].

Brain technology shows the same two-country pattern. In our count of every brain-computer interface implant, China’s three newest programmes gave 45 of the 69 long-term implants reported from January 2024 to October 2026, against 21 for Neuralink ^[22]. Papers, implants and money each measure a different part of the race.

09 What was the Human Brain Project, and what did it cost?

The Human Brain Project was a ten-year European Union flagship that ran from October 2013 to September 2023; the European Commission announced it in January 2013 as set to receive one billion euros, and CORDIS records 381 million euros of EU grants in its four phases ^{[11] [12] [13] [14] [15]}. The difference is not a contradiction: the 2013 plan counted national and other funding as well as EU grants, and only the EU grants are documented line by line.

The four phases were a ramp-up phase under the EU’s Seventh Framework Programme (54 million euros, 2013-10 to 2017-02) and three Specific Grant Agreements under Horizon 2020: SGA1 (89 million, 2016-04 to 2018-03), SGA2 (88 million, 2018-04 to 2020-03) and SGA3 (150 million, 2020-04 to 2023-09). The École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland coordinated the first three phases and EBRAINS, registered in Belgium, the last one ^{[12] [15]}.

What it made: the last phase was designed to “deliver EBRAINS”, a European research infrastructure for brain data, atlases, models and simulation ^[15]. EBRAINS continues under a new EU grant, EBRAINS 2.0, worth 37,995,202 euros for January 2024 to December 2026 ^[16]. The European Commission chose the Human Brain Project on 28 January 2013 and the US BRAIN Initiative was announced on 2 April 2013; Japan’s Brain/MINDS followed in 2014 ^{[11] [10] [19]}.

Figure 13

National brain projects, 2011-2026

Each bar runs from a programme's start to its end (or today, as of 9 November 2026). Dots mark launches, money stated in an official source, and the paper milestones from our OpenAlex counts. Tap or hover a dot for details.

CanadaUnited StatesHuman Brain ProjectEBRAINS 2.0Brain/MINDSSuccessorChinaLaunch or new phaseMoney in an official sourcePaper milestone (OpenAlex)

Canada Brain Research FundC$200m federal 2011-2021Budget 2011: up to C$100mBudget 2024: C$80m

US BRAIN Initiative$321m in FY2025LaunchPeak $680m$321m

EU Human Brain Project€381m in EU grantsChosen as an EU flagshipEBRAINS 2.0

Japan Brain/MINDS¥6.54bn in FY2025StartSuccessor programme

China brain project¥3.148bn, 2021 callFirst call

Neuroscience papersOpenAlexChina 2ndChina passes US, all science

201120142017202020232026

10 How much do the US BRAIN Initiative and the China brain project cost?

The US BRAIN Initiative had $321 million at NIH in FY2025, down from a peak of $680 million in FY2023, and China’s brain project announced 3.148 billion yuan of national funding for its first call in 2021, about $437 million at 2024 exchange rates ^{[9] [17] [7]}. The two figures are not the same kind of number: the US figure is one year of appropriations, the Chinese one is the money for a call whose projects usually run five years.

The BRAIN Initiative was launched on 2 April 2013 with about $100 million planned for FY2014 across three agencies, about $40 million of it at NIH ^[10]. NIH funds it from two streams: a base budget, $230 million in FY2023-FY2025, and money set in advance by the 21st Century Cures Act, which rose to $450 million in FY2023, fell to $172 million in FY2024 and $91 million in FY2025, and ends after FY2026 ^[9]. NIH’s total for FY2022-FY2025, the years its budget page states in words, is $2.02 billion.

China’s “Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Research” project is one of the major projects of the Science and Technology Innovation 2030 programme. Its 2021 guide set out 59 research directions in five areas: how the brain gives rise to cognition, brain disorders linked to cognitive decline, brain-inspired computing and brain-machine interfaces, child and adolescent brain development, and shared technology platforms ^[17]. We found no official total for the whole project, and no later yearly guide with an amount, so the table lists only the 2021 call.

Figure 14

What the official sources say the brain projects got

US$ millions at 2024 exchange rates (World Bank), not adjusted for inflation. HBP = Human Brain Project; CBRF = Canada Brain Research Fund. Periods differ: one year for the US and Japan, a whole call or programme for the others. At purchasing power parity, China's 2021 call is worth $893 million. IQ Metrics conversion of the amounts in the original currency, as of 9 November 2026.

HBP plan, 2013 (10 years)1,082

US BRAIN, FY2023 (1 year)680

China, 2021 call (5-yr projects)437

HBP, 4 EU grants, 2013-23412

US BRAIN, FY2025 (1 year)321

Canada CBRF, federal, 2011-21146

Japan, FY2025 (1 year)43

EBRAINS 2.0, 2024-2641

Other countries run smaller programmes. Japan’s Brain/MINDS began in FY2014 as a ten-year project and continues as the Brain Neuroscience Integrated Program, with ¥6.54 billion in FY2025 (about $43 million at 2024 exchange rates) ^{[18] [19]}. Canada has committed C$200 million of federal money to the Canada Brain Research Fund through Budgets 2011, 2016, 2019 and a 2021 renewal, and C$80 million more over four years in Budget 2024, each dollar matched by Brain Canada ^{[20] [21]}. The brain project money is small next to ordinary research budgets, as the next section shows.

Table 1

Every brain-project money figure we could read in an official source

Amounts in the original currency as the source states them, then in US$ millions at the 2024 World Bank exchange rate and in international dollars at 2024 purchasing power parity (n/a: the World Bank gives no euro-area PPP rate). Not adjusted for inflation. A blank in the official record is not filled.

Project	Country	Period	Amount	What the figure is	US$ m (2024 rate)	Int. $ m (PPP 2024)	Source
BRAIN Initiative launch, all federal agencies	United States	FY2014	$100,000,000	proposed in the President’s FY2014 budget (NIH, DARPA, NSF)	100.0	100.0	[10]
BRAIN Initiative, NIH share	United States	FY2014	$40,000,000	planned NIH allocation	40.0	40.0	[10]
NIH BRAIN Initiative	United States	FY2022	$620,000,000	one-year appropriation (base + Cures Act)	620.0	620.0	[9]
NIH BRAIN Initiative	United States	FY2023	$680,000,000	one-year appropriation (base + Cures Act)	680.0	680.0	[9]
NIH BRAIN Initiative	United States	FY2024	$402,000,000	one-year appropriation (base + Cures Act)	402.0	402.0	[9]
NIH BRAIN Initiative	United States	FY2025	$321,000,000	one-year appropriation (base + Cures Act)	321.0	321.0	[9]
Human Brain Project (announced plan, all funders)	European Union	2013-2023 (10 years)	€1,000,000,000	announced in 2013 for 10 years	1082.4	n/a	[11]
Human Brain Project, ramp-up phase (FP7, grant 604102)	European Union	2013-10 to 2017-02	€54,000,000	EU grant (CORDIS EU contribution)	58.4	n/a	[12]
Human Brain Project, SGA1 (Horizon 2020, grant 720270)	European Union	2016-04 to 2018-03	€89,000,000	EU grant (CORDIS EU contribution)	96.3	n/a	[13]
Human Brain Project, SGA2 (Horizon 2020, grant 785907)	European Union	2018-04 to 2020-03	€88,000,000	EU grant (CORDIS EU contribution)	95.2	n/a	[14]
Human Brain Project, SGA3 (Horizon 2020, grant 945539)	European Union	2020-04 to 2023-09	€150,000,000	EU grant (CORDIS EU contribution)	162.4	n/a	[15]
EBRAINS 2.0 (Horizon Europe, grant 101147319)	European Union	2024-01 to 2026-12	€37,995,202	EU grant (CORDIS EU contribution)	41.1	n/a	[16]
STI 2030 major project “Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Research”, 2021 call	China	2021 call (projects usually 5 years)	¥3,148,000,000 (yuan)	national funding estimate for the 2021 call (59 research directions)	437.4	893.0	[17]
Brain/MINDS 2.0 (Brain Neuroscience Integrated Program, AMED)	Japan	FY2024	¥6,513,000,000 (yen)	one-year budget	43.0	68.9	[18]
Brain/MINDS 2.0 (Brain Neuroscience Integrated Program, AMED)	Japan	FY2025	¥6,540,000,000 (yen)	one-year budget	43.2	69.2	[18]
Canada Brain Research Fund (federal share, Budgets 2011, 2016, 2019 and the 2021 renewal)	Canada	2011-2021 commitments	C$200,000,000	federal commitments, matched 1:1 by Brain Canada	146.1	173.8	[20]
Canada Brain Research Fund, Budget 2024 renewal (federal share)	Canada	2024-2028 (four years)	C$80,000,000	federal commitment, matched 1:1 (envelope $160 million)	58.4	69.5	[20]

11 How much does the US spend on neuroscience in total?

The US National Institutes of Health spent $11.9 billion on its research category Neurosciences in FY2025, 2.3 times the $5.2 billion of FY2008 ^[8]. That is about 37 times the BRAIN Initiative’s FY2025 budget: most US neuroscience money flows through the ordinary grants of NIH institutes, not through the flagship project.

Figure 15

NIH neuroscience funding more than doubled, FY2008-FY2025

NIH spending in its research category Neurosciences, US$ billions a year. FY2008: 5.22; FY2025: 11.90. FY2009 and FY2010 leave out the one-off Recovery Act money. China publishes no comparable yearly line for neuroscience. NIH RePORT table of 23 June 2026.

FY20085.22 bn

FY20095.32 bn

FY20105.52 bn

FY20115.55 bn

FY20125.62 bn

FY20135.34 bn

FY20145.58 bn

FY20155.74 bn

FY20166.46 bn

FY20177.32 bn

FY20188.22 bn

FY20199.47 bn

FY202010.12 bn

FY202110.72 bn

FY202211.29 bn

FY202311.87 bn

FY202411.81 bn

FY202511.90 bn

No comparable yearly figure exists for China: the government does not publish neuroscience spending by research category, so a like-for-like money comparison is not possible from official sources. What can be compared is output, and there the money gap and the paper gap point the same way: the US still leads, by a shrinking margin. Our review of adult neurogenesis studies and organoid intelligence ledger show what some of that research produces, study by study.

For more on how the brain works, see our human brain facts, what Einstein’s brain did and did not show, and the intelligence research news desk, which follows new studies as they appear.

12 Every country and every year in our dataset

Table 2

United States and China, every year 2000-2026

Neuroscience papers (whole counting), China as % of the US, the top 1% most cited, papers with authors in both countries, and the world totals with and without a known author country. 2026 runs to 9 November.

Year	US papers	China papers	China as % of US	US top 1%	China top 1%	US-China joint	World, known country	World, all
2000	11,421	493	4.3	283	0	29	27,757	39,990
2001	10,828	638	5.9	247	0	48	27,413	38,397
2002	11,658	766	6.6	280	2	49	28,892	40,382
2003	12,575	1,114	8.9	303	0	89	31,187	42,811
2004	13,431	1,351	10.1	337	4	95	33,103	47,134
2005	13,490	1,711	12.7	345	4	154	33,466	47,429
2006	15,157	2,298	15.2	397	9	206	37,428	51,834
2007	14,482	2,653	18.3	380	7	224	37,601	52,473
2008	17,322	3,218	18.6	455	14	317	44,191	61,329
2009	15,974	3,404	21.3	452	10	344	43,023	61,939
2010	21,552	3,790	17.6	493	22	484	52,399	70,738
2011	18,030	4,137	22.9	477	24	518	47,610	65,601
2012	18,340	4,280	23.3	490	26	603	48,261	66,100
2013	19,186	5,265	27.4	534	37	722	52,469	71,027
2014	19,238	5,445	28.3	525	34	876	53,025	71,205
2015	18,872	5,522	29.3	539	62	996	53,162	71,924
2016	18,629	5,345	28.7	579	51	976	52,149	72,611
2017	19,374	6,047	31.2	531	60	1,159	55,226	72,371
2018	19,426	6,652	34.2	511	81	1,232	55,916	70,509
2019	19,450	7,131	36.7	474	110	1,187	57,565	73,668
2020	18,741	7,920	42.3	443	122	1,219	57,629	71,090
2021	19,095	9,094	47.6	430	117	1,143	61,808	71,155
2022	17,900	10,715	59.9	410	161	1,109	59,580	66,162
2023	18,049	10,352	57.4	380	189	1,003	60,280	67,691
2024	17,612	11,814	67.1	392	217	988	60,730	68,728
2025	18,520	14,534	78.5	393	240	1,080	67,495	79,138
2026 (to date)	15,351	13,768	89.7	407	187	821	59,880	76,766

Table 3

Every country with a neuroscience paper in 2025

158 countries and territories, sorted by papers (whole counting). Share = share of papers with a known author country. Per million: World Bank population 2025. R&D: share of GDP, latest World Bank year. n/a = no World Bank value. As of 9 November 2026.

Country	Rank	Papers 2025	Top 1%%	Share %%	Papers 2015	Papers 2000	Per million	R&D %% GDP (year)
United States	1	18,520	393	27.44	18,872	11,421	54.2	3.45 (2023)
China	2	14,534	240	21.53	5,522	493	10.3	2.58 (2023)
United Kingdom	3	4,925	146	7.3	5,008	2,575	70.9	2.68 (2023)
Germany	4	4,635	107	6.87	4,943	2,517	55.5	3.15 (2023)
Japan	5	3,443	38	5.1	3,564	3,048	27.9	3.44 (2023)
Canada	6	3,284	68	4.87	3,116	1,561	78.8	1.79 (2024)
Italy	7	2,916	36	4.32	2,278	1,187	49.5	1.38 (2023)
India	8	2,804	27	4.15	914	134	1.9	0.65 (2020)
France	9	2,336	49	3.46	2,442	1,486	34.0	2.18 (2023)
Brazil	10	2,215	20	3.28	1,322	270	10.4	1.19 (2023)
Spain	11	2,042	36	3.03	1,688	714	41.4	1.49 (2023)
Australia	12	1,900	50	2.82	2,094	744	68.8	1.86 (2021)
South Korea	13	1,766	33	2.62	1,387	193	34.2	4.94 (2023)
Netherlands	14	1,734	33	2.57	1,605	598	95.9	2.27 (2023)
Türkiye	15	1,432	9	2.12	493	86	16.7	1.42 (2023)
Russia	16	1,389	1	2.06	1,046	630	9.7	0.94 (2024)
Switzerland	17	1,330	60	1.97	1,140	517	146.3	3.22 (2023)
Iran	18	1,188	6	1.76	814	34	12.9	0.73 (2021)
Poland	19	1,023	7	1.52	748	334	28.1	1.56 (2023)
Sweden	20	1,022	43	1.51	911	610	96.4	3.60 (2023)
Belgium	21	936	19	1.39	899	315	78.4	3.27 (2023)
Indonesia	22	857	1	1.27	100	4	3.0	0.28 (2020)
Israel	23	741	21	1.1	717	344	73.2	6.35 (2023)
Denmark	24	680	26	1.01	548	206	113.2	3.05 (2023)
Hong Kong	25	669	22	0.99	268	99	89.2	1.13 (2024)
Taiwan	26	659	11	0.98	586	179	n/a	n/a
Saudi Arabia	27	650	24	0.96	149	14	17.6	0.64 (2024)
Egypt	28	623	7	0.92	182	11	5.3	1.02 (2024)
Mexico	29	584	3	0.87	375	128	4.4	0.25 (2024)
Austria	30	539	8	0.8	475	176	58.5	3.26 (2023)
Portugal	31	493	8	0.73	383	39	45.6	1.69 (2023)
Pakistan	32	448	7	0.66	90	6	1.8	0.16 (2023)
Norway	33	427	14	0.63	269	116	76.1	1.85 (2023)
Finland	34	414	8	0.61	377	250	73.3	3.09 (2023)
Malaysia	35	377	6	0.56	165	6	10.5	1.01 (2022)
Argentina	36	345	2	0.51	295	120	7.5	0.60 (2023)
Greece	37	344	7	0.51	180	60	33.0	1.49 (2023)
Hungary	38	332	8	0.49	286	218	34.9	1.38 (2023)
Singapore	38	332	16	0.49	280	33	54.3	1.81 (2022)
Ukraine	40	328	0	0.49	164	69	8.4	0.37 (2024)
Chile	41	318	3	0.47	246	52	16.0	0.39 (2022)
Iraq	42	310	3	0.46	23	2	6.6	0.04 (2021)
Ireland	43	294	6	0.44	213	88	53.6	1.59 (2023)
Ecuador	44	292	1	0.43	15	2	16.0	0.44 (2014)
Czechia	45	282	3	0.42	224	92	25.9	1.83 (2023)
Thailand	46	256	2	0.38	94	20	3.6	0.94 (2023)
Colombia	47	235	3	0.35	125	16	4.4	0.29 (2020)
Uzbekistan	48	230	0	0.34	6	2	6.2	0.10 (2024)
New Zealand	49	229	5	0.34	268	127	43.0	1.55 (2023)
Romania	50	210	5	0.31	95	8	11.0	0.52 (2023)
Nigeria	51	194	0	0.29	45	3	0.8	0.28 (2019)
United Arab Emirates	52	186	6	0.28	61	8	16.2	1.49 (2021)
South Africa	53	183	2	0.27	108	38	2.8	0.61 (2022)
Macao	54	170	6	0.25	33	0	247.8	0.31 (2024)
Bangladesh	55	151	4	0.22	40	2	0.9	n/a
Jordan	56	117	5	0.17	20	2	10.2	0.70 (2016)
Morocco	57	116	1	0.17	19	7	3.0	0.66 (2010)
Bulgaria	58	109	2	0.16	48	31	16.9	0.79 (2023)
Peru	59	108	1	0.16	22	5	3.1	0.18 (2023)
Serbia	60	107	0	0.16	103	18	16.3	0.94 (2024)
Slovakia	61	101	1	0.15	81	24	18.7	1.03 (2023)
Croatia	62	89	1	0.13	67	13	23.0	1.39 (2023)
Vietnam	62	89	0	0.13	12	1	0.9	0.41 (2023)
Kazakhstan	64	86	0	0.13	2	0	4.1	0.16 (2024)
Philippines	65	82	0	0.12	22	7	0.7	0.28 (2020)
Tunisia	66	77	1	0.11	53	10	6.2	0.75 (2019)
Slovenia	67	75	2	0.11	42	31	35.2	2.13 (2023)
Cyprus	68	73	1	0.11	26	5	53.3	0.68 (2023)
Qatar	69	71	0	0.11	42	1	23.9	0.68 (2021)
Luxembourg	70	64	1	0.09	25	4	93.2	1.07 (2023)
Lithuania	71	61	0	0.09	27	11	21.1	1.05 (2023)
Cuba	72	59	0	0.09	40	18	5.4	0.44 (2024)
Lebanon	73	57	2	0.08	25	7	9.7	n/a
Algeria	74	54	1	0.08	27	5	1.1	0.44 (2024)
Uruguay	74	54	0	0.08	35	14	16.0	0.70 (2023)
Georgia	76	50	0	0.07	12	5	12.7	0.26 (2024)
Azerbaijan	77	46	0	0.07	3	2	4.5	0.21 (2024)
Puerto Rico	78	45	1	0.07	40	16	14.1	0.43 (2015)
Estonia	79	41	1	0.06	44	26	30.0	1.84 (2023)
Belarus	80	39	0	0.06	18	5	4.3	0.59 (2024)
Iceland	81	37	2	0.05	32	2	94.3	2.64 (2023)
Oman	82	35	0	0.05	11	1	6.4	0.39 (2024)
Armenia	83	33	0	0.05	7	22	10.7	0.29 (2024)
Ethiopia	83	33	2	0.05	4	0	0.2	0.27 (2017)
Nepal	85	32	1	0.05	10	0	1.1	0.30 (2010)
Palestine	86	31	0	0.05	10	1	5.7	0.45 (2013)
Costa Rica	87	30	0	0.04	16	1	5.8	0.34 (2023)
Ghana	87	30	0	0.04	5	1	0.9	0.38 (2010)
Latvia	87	30	1	0.04	8	3	16.2	0.82 (2023)
Venezuela	90	28	0	0.04	24	26	1.0	0.34 (2014)
Panama	91	26	0	0.04	4	0	5.7	0.20 (2024)
Paraguay	91	26	0	0.04	1	0	3.7	0.14 (2023)
Bahrain	93	25	2	0.04	1	0	15.6	0.19 (2024)
Sri Lanka	93	25	0	0.04	6	0	1.1	0.11 (2022)
Kuwait	95	24	0	0.04	12	7	4.9	0.09 (2024)
Kenya	96	22	0	0.03	4	3	0.4	0.81 (2024)
Bolivia	97	19	0	0.03	5	0	1.5	0.06 (2021)
Rwanda	97	19	0	0.03	0	0	1.3	0.78 (2023)
Kyrgyzstan	99	18	0	0.03	2	1	2.5	0.05 (2024)
Moldova	99	18	0	0.03	1	0	7.6	0.22 (2024)
Malta	99	18	0	0.03	13	0	31.1	0.65 (2023)
Bosnia & Herzegovina	102	17	1	0.03	7	2	5.4	0.21 (2024)
Cameroon	103	16	0	0.02	2	1	0.5	n/a
Dominican Rep.	103	16	0	0.02	7	0	1.4	n/a
Libya	103	16	0	0.02	1	0	2.1	n/a
North Macedonia	103	16	0	0.02	14	0	8.8	0.37 (2024)
Sudan	103	16	0	0.02	5	0	0.3	0.23 (2005)
Uganda	108	14	0	0.02	1	0	0.3	0.44 (2023)
Syria	109	13	0	0.02	2	0	0.5	0.04 (2022)
Tanzania	109	13	0	0.02	2	2	0.2	0.51 (2013)
Yemen	109	13	0	0.02	2	1	0.3	n/a
DR Congo	112	11	0	0.02	3	0	0.1	0.41 (2015)
Albania	113	10	0	0.01	5	0	4.3	0.20 (2022)
Grenada	113	10	0	0.01	3	0	85.2	n/a
Réunion	115	8	0	0.01	4	0	n/a	n/a
Antigua and Barbuda	116	7	0	0.01	1	0	74.3	n/a
Senegal	116	7	0	0.01	0	1	0.4	0.58 (2015)
Somalia	116	7	0	0.01	0	0	0.4	n/a
Afghanistan	119	6	0	0.01	0	0	0.1	n/a
Honduras	119	6	0	0.01	1	0	0.5	0.06 (2019)
St. Kitts & Nevis	119	6	0	0.01	3	0	127.9	n/a
Kosovo	119	6	1	0.01	4	1	3.8	n/a
Angola	123	5	0	0.01	0	0	0.1	0.03 (2016)
Botswana	123	5	0	0.01	1	0	2.0	0.56 (2013)
Ivory Coast	123	5	0	0.01	5	0	0.2	0.07 (2016)
Guatemala	123	5	0	0.01	0	0	0.3	0.01 (2023)
Congo	127	4	0	0.01	0	0	0.6	0.38 (2022)
Gibraltar	127	4	0	0.01	1	0	99.7	n/a
Gambia	127	4	0	0.01	2	0	1.4	0.07 (2018)
Myanmar	127	4	0	0.01	1	0	0.1	0.02 (2023)
Mongolia	127	4	0	0.01	1	0	1.1	0.08 (2022)
Nicaragua	127	4	0	0.01	1	1	0.6	0.11 (2015)
El Salvador	127	4	0	0.01	0	0	0.6	0.10 (2023)
Zambia	127	4	0	0.01	1	0	0.2	0.28 (2008)
Guadeloupe	135	3	0	0.0	3	4	n/a	n/a
Maldives	135	3	0	0.0	0	0	5.7	n/a
Mozambique	135	3	0	0.0	0	0	0.1	0.31 (2015)
Barbados	138	2	0	0.0	1	0	7.1	n/a
Curaçao	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	12.8	n/a
Cambodia	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	0.1	0.09 (2015)
Monaco	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	52.2	0.04 (2005)
Mali	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	0.1	0.15 (2023)
Martinique	138	2	0	0.0	1	0	n/a	n/a
Mauritius	138	2	0	0.0	1	0	1.6	0.26 (2024)
Malawi	138	2	0	0.0	1	0	0.1	0.18 (2019)
Togo	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	0.2	0.22 (2024)
Tajikistan	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	0.2	0.09 (2020)
Zimbabwe	138	2	0	0.0	0	0	0.1	n/a
Anguilla	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	n/a	n/a
Burkina Faso	149	1	0	0.0	0	1	0.0	0.10 (2024)
Bhutan	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	1.3	0.10 (2024)
Laos	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	0.1	0.04 (2002)
Liberia	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	0.2	n/a
Lesotho	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	0.4	0.09 (2023)
Mauritania	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	0.2	0.01 (2018)
Namibia	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	0.3	0.65 (2022)
New Caledonia	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	3.4	n/a
Suriname	149	1	0	0.0	0	0	1.6	n/a

Table 4

What we looked for and could not confirm

Each line is a gap in what we could read from an official source, not proof that the money or the programme does not exist.

Item	What we found
China brain project: total budget	The Ministry of Science and Technology guide of 2021 gives 3.148 billion yuan for that year’s call. We found no official total for the whole project and no later yearly guide with an amount we could read.
US BRAIN Initiative: FY2014-FY2021 and FY2026	The NIH budget page states FY2022-FY2025 in its text; earlier years appear only as bars in a chart without numbers, so we did not type them. FY2026 is not on the page copy of June 2026.
Korea Brain Initiative	Plans and yearly budgets were reported in news; we could not read an official budget document within this study, so Korea is not in the money table.
Australian Brain Alliance	We found no national government grant for an Australian brain initiative in the sources we read.
Human Brain Project: national co-funding	The 2013 plan of one billion euros counted on national and other money as well as EU grants; only the four EU grants (CORDIS) are documented line by line.
China: yearly neuroscience funding	No public yearly figure for neuroscience comparable to the NIH research category.

13 How we built the dataset

1. 01

   Search for an existing count

   Before building, we searched for a published country-by-year count of neuroscience papers for 2000-2026. We found studies of earlier periods and rankings of a fixed set of journals, not an open yearly count to 2026, so we built one.

2. 02

   Define neuroscience once

   We used OpenAlex’s Neuroscience field (fields/28): journal articles and reviews whose primary topic lies in it. Clinical neurology, which OpenAlex files under medicine, is shown separately as a check.

3. 03

   Count with open queries

   About 90 OpenAlex queries (filter and group-by only), one per year for all papers and for the top 1%, plus world totals, US-China joint papers and subfields. Every response is saved; a script re-derives every number (260 checks).

4. 04

   Read money only from official sources

   Budget figures come from NIH, the White House, the European Commission and CORDIS, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology, Japan’s MEXT and AMED, and the Government of Canada. Each figure is checked against the saved page by script; news figures were leads only.

5. 05

   Label our own arithmetic

   Shares, ratios, ranks, growth rates, papers per million and currency conversions are IQ Metrics calculations from those counts and World Bank data. Missing values stay missing.